Ever since the Industrial Revolution began in the 19th century, emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2)have kept increasing in the environment from industrial activities and products. The gas, often referred to as a ‘greenhouse gas’, has been identified as the main contributor to global warming. Although nature has had processes to remove CO2, the increase of the gas has exceeded the capability of natural systems to remove it, leading to accumulation that has reached levels where the climate is being changed.
The warning signs are clear and depending on who you listen to, we could be very close to the tipping point when the change will not be reversible. But regardless of the timeline, it is clear that global warming is occurring and action needs to be taken. Scientists believe that preventing an increase of more than 1.5 degrees C. is crucial for the planet’s future and some 200 countries have given commitments to do their part to achieve this goal.
Industries, most of which generate CO2 through their activities and products, have also made a similar commitment to help prevent climate change. Many have already stated goals to stop generating greenhouse gases – becoming carbon-neutral – in their activities and products during the next couple of decades.
Among these companies is Shell, the global energy company, which has long had activities upstream and downstream as well as products – fuels and lubricants, in particular – which have generated CO2. The company has declared that it will become a net-zero emissions energy business by 2050.
While the European carmakers are thinking of phasing out combustion engines, the Japanese carmakers are still trying to keep them in use for a while longer, not just in hybrid powertrains but also on their own. In order to meet increasingly stringent emission standards – one reason why industry is going the EV route – the carmakers are exploring and testing the use of environment-friendly fuels.
Toyota is testing an engine running on hydrogen (as a fuel, not for a fuel cell) while Mazda has been running a 100% biodiesel made from used cooking oil and microalgae fats. Subaru is the third member of the same group of companies exploring new fuels that can be classified as carbon-neutral.
All three companies have formed an alliance for such R&D work and are running their prototypes in the current ENEOS Super Taikyu Series. Toyota’s prototype is adapted from a Corolla hatchback, while Mazda is using a Demio model. Subaru has chosen its BRZ sportscar for the purpose.
The use of the Super Taikyu series is suitable for development work as it subjects the prototype engines to extreme conditions within a short period. Feedback on engine performance will help the engineers identify issues and work on solutions so that fuel options can be expanded for combustion engines which are also acceptable for a carbon-neutral society.
For developing of the prototype, Subaru has over 100 engineers involved in Team SDA Engineering. The engineers made minimal modification to the BRZ to retain mass production vehicle engineering which is reliable. However, racing regulations require safety equipment and the roll cage is an important item to be installed. The structure of the roll-cage was specially designed so that there would be space for EyeSight stereo camera which is used for the active safety systems.
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The carbon-neutral fuel is a synthetic fuel formulated by synthesizing sources such as carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen and components derived from non-edible biomasses so as to match with Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS) for petrol It is seen as one of the measures for achieving carbon neutrality as the amount of carbon dioxide emitted during combustion is regarded as neutral.
Mazda’s Demio prototype (above) runs on biodiesel made from used cooking oil and microalgae fats, while Toyota’s prototype (below) has an engine running on hydrogen.
When all materials are derived from renewable energy and CO2 emitted during production and transportation process is zero, the fuel can be considered a truly carbon-neutral fuel. However, since there still is CO2 emission during production and the transportation process, the fuel used at this time is not strictly carbon-neutral. Subaru is aiming to make it 100% carbon neutral in the future.
The livery of the race car features the motif of blue and green flame which respectively symbolize the passion of Subaru engineers and environmental friendliness of carbon-neutral fuel.
In November last year, 5 Japanese companies – Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Mazda Motor Corporation, Subaru Corporation, Toyota Motor Corporation and Yamaha Motor – jointly announced that they would begin discussions for conducting collaborative research into possible avenues for expanding the range of fuel options for internal combustion engines in the quest for carbon neutrality.
Giving customers more choices
Specifically, the companies intend to unite and pursue 3 initiatives: 1) participating in races using carbon-neutral fuels, 2) exploring the use of hydrogen engines in 2-wheeled and other vehicles, and 3) continuing to race using hydrogen engines. This is in an effort to provide customers with greater choice so that, in Toyota’s words’, ‘no customer is left behind’.
Toyota has been working with Yamaha Motor, Denso Corporation and other related parties to develop a hydrogen engine since 2016. It has entered a Corolla equipped with a prototype hydrogen-fueled engine in 3 races in Japan, with Toyota President & CEO Akio Toyoda also participating in the races.
Toyota has been racing a Corolla with a prototype hydrogen-fueled engine in Japan. It is also known to be developing a GR Yaris to run on hydrogen.
Besides the engine in the Corolla, it has been revealed that there is another engine which Yamaha has been commissioned to develop by Toyota. This is a 5-litre V8 engine that can be used for automobiles which is fueled entirely by hydrogen. Shown to the public recently, the unit is based on the engine of the same size and configuration in the Lexus RC F sport coupe.
The V8 engine in the Lexus RC F. For the prototype engine to run on hydrogen, it has been modified in many areas.
Modifications have been made to the injectors, cylinder heads, intake manifold, and more, and it is claimed to produce up to 455 bhp at 6,800 rpm, with maximum torque of 540 Nm at 3,600 rpm. The 32-valve engine running on petrol has been able to produce up to 472 bhp and 535 Nm, although emission regulations have lowered it to 457 bhp in recent years.
Lexus RC F
5-year experience with hydrogen engine
Actually, Yamaha began developing a hydrogen engine for cars about 5 years ago. Takeshi Yamada from the Technical Research & Development Centre’s Automotive Development Section who is a member of the hydrogen engine development team, recalls having a of sense ‘the depth of potential in the powerplant’ as the project progressed.
“I started to see that engines using only hydrogen for fuel actually had very fun, easy-to-use performance characteristics,” he explained. “Hydrogen engines have an innately friendly feel that makes them easy to use even without resorting to electronic driving aids. Everyone who came to test-drive the prototype car would start off somewhat skeptical, but emerged from the car with a big smile on their face at the end. As I watched this, I started to believe that there is actually enormous potential in the characteristics unique to hydrogen engines instead of simply treating it as a substitute for petrol.”
Another thing that Yamada and the team value in the development process is kanno seino, meaning ‘sensual’ or ‘exhilarating’ performance. One example is the harmonic high-frequency exhaust note produced by the engine’s 8-into-1 exhaust manifold. “This is a challenge we can sink our teeth into as engineers and I personally want to pursue not just performance but also a new allure for the internal combustion engine that the world has yet to see,” declared Yamada.
“Hydrogen engines house the potential to be carbon-neutral while keeping our passion for the internal combustion engine alive at the same time,” proclaimed Yamaha President Hidaka. “Teaming up with companies with different corporate cultures and areas of expertise as well as growing the number of partners we have is how we want to lead the way into the future.”
Yamaha was involved in the development, particularly the 6-cylinder engine, of the Toyota 2000GT, Japan’s first supercar in the 1960s.
Long history of collaboration
Toyota has had a 5% stake in Yamaha since 2019 but the two companies have a long history of working together, going back to the 1960s. Although well known for its motorcycles, Yamaha has great expertise in engines and was involved in the development as well as manufacture of high-performance engines for Toyota models, including the 2000GT, Japan’s first supercar.
Aiming for net zero carbon emissions by 2039, in line with the Reimagine strategy announced last month, Jaguar Land Rover’s (JLR) aim includes zero tailpipe emissions from its vehicles by 2036. This means that internal combustion engines will no longer be used. Electrical power is the most viable solution for future powertrains as they will have zero emissions, and JLR is developing various prototypes.
Fuel cells, spin-offs from the space program, are being considered by a number of manufacturers, some of whom already have commercialised fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs). JLR is also looking to use a hydrogen fuel cell and is developing a prototype FCEV based on the latest Land Rover Defender.
Advantages of hydrogen FCEV
FCEVs, which generate electricity from hydrogen to power an electric motor, are complimentary to battery electric vehicles (BEVs) on the journey to net zero vehicle emissions. Hydrogen-powered FCEVs provide high energy density and rapid refuelling, and minimal loss of range in low temperatures, making the technology ideal for larger, longer-range vehicles, or those operated in hot or cold environments.
Since 2018, the global number of FCEVs on the road has nearly doubled while hydrogen refuelling stations have increased by more than 20%. By 2030, forecasts predict hydrogen-powered FCEV deployment could top 10 million with 10,000 refuelling stations worldwide.
JLR’s advanced engineering project, known as Project Zeus, is partly funded by the government-backed Advanced Propulsion Centre, and will allow engineers to understand how a hydrogen powertrain can be optimised to deliver the performance and capability expected by its customers: from range to refuelling, and towing to off-road ability.
The Defender’s platform, which can accommodate combustion engines as well as hybrid powertrains, is also being used for the development of a fuel cell electric vehicle.
The project also has other partners involved such as Delta Motorsport, AVL, Marelli Automotive Systems and the UK Battery Industrialisation Centre (UKBIC) to research, develop and create the prototype FCEV with testing scheduled to begin this year. The testing, in the UK, will verify key attributes such as off-road capability and fuel consumption.
“We know hydrogen has a role to play in the future powertrain mix across the whole transport industry, and alongside battery electric vehicles, it offers another zero tailpipe emission solution for the specific capabilities and requirements of Jaguar Land Rover’s world class line-up of vehicles. The work done alongside our partners in Project Zeus will help us on our journey to become a net zero carbon business by 2039, as we prepare for the next generation of zero tailpipe emissions vehicles,” said Ralph Clague, Head of Hydrogen and Fuel Cells for Jaguar Land Rover.
A Land Rover factory in the UK.
Producton facilities are carbon neutral
JLR was the first UK automotive manufacturer to have met the internationally recognised PAS 2060 standard for carbon neutrality across its vehicle manufacturing assembly operations and product development sites. In January last year, its facilities completed a second consecutive year being certified as carbon-neutral by the Carbon Trust. Together, these sites represent 77% of JLR’S global vehicle production.
The Carbon Trust re-certification is part of the carmaker’s journey to ‘Destination Zero’, after it was originally achieved two years ahead of a commitment to operate carbon-neutral UK manufacturing by 2020.
Motorsports have long been used for the testing and development of many new technologies which have eventually been used for everyday cars. Engineers who work with racing teams have to do so under challenging conditions that also require speed due to competition, and this provides fertile ground for developing new solutions to improve performance.
Toyota Motor Corporation (TMC) will also be taking this approach in developing a hydrogen-fuelled engine. Actually, the engine already exists and It has been installed in a racing car based on Toyota’s Corolla Sport. This car will enter races under the ORC ROOKIE Racing banner, starting with the Super Taikyu Series 2021 Powered by Hankook Round 3 NAPAC Fuji Super TEC 24 Hours Race in May.
The hydrogen-fuelled racing car undergoing tests.
By refining its under-development hydrogen engine in the harsh environment of motorsports, Toyota aims to contribute to the realization of a sustainable and prosperous mobility society, ultimately enabling a carbon-neutral mobility society.
Toyota has long engaged in the innovation of engine technology, and in fact, the company has not only successful developed fuel cells (FCs) which use hydrogen that chemically reacts with oxygen in the air to produce electricity, but it has also used those fuel cells to power the electric motor in the Mirai, Toyota’s first commercialised fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV). Except for the combustion of minute amounts of engine oil during driving, which is also the case with petrol engines, hydrogen engines emit zero CO2 when in use.
For the hydrogen engine, the fuel delivery systems for FCEVs have been modified from those used with petrol engines. Combustion in hydrogen engines occurs at a faster rate than in petrol engines, resulting in a characteristic of good responsiveness. While having excellent environmental performance, hydrogen engines also have the potential to relay the fun of driving, including through sounds and vibrations.
Plans are for the hydrogen-engined racing car to be fueled during races using hydrogen produced at the Fukushima Hydrogen Energy Research Field. While aiming to expand the hydrogen infrastructure in Japan by promoting hydrogen use, Toyota intends to continue advancing efforts for economic recovery and revitalization of the Tohoku region together with all parties concerned.
Even in safety, Toyota intends to apply the technologies and know-how that it has accumulated through the development of fuel cell vehicles and the commercialization of the Mirai. To ensure safety related to the use of hydrogen and high voltage, the countermeasures cultivated during the development of electrified vehicles such as FCEVs and HEVs were implemented. These measures are based on the basic approach of ensuring that hydrogen does not leak and, in the unlikely event that any leaks should occur, ensuring their immediate detection and stoppage.
Mirai – Toyota’s first commercialised fuel-cell electric vehicle runs on hydrogen. Two generations have been produced since it first went on sale in 2014.
Toward achieving carbon neutrality, Toyota has been strengthening its efforts, such as by aiming to promote the use of hydrogen through the popularization of FCEVs and numerous other fuel-cell-powered products. Toyota has been taking various initiatives toward the creation of a hydrogen society, such as selling the Mirai and SORA FCEV bus, selling FC systems to FC product companies, as well as allowing royalty-free use of its FCEV-related patent licenses.
Toyota has developed a product that packages individual FC system-related products of second generation Mirai with enhanced performance, such as the FC stack, as well as components that handle air supply, hydrogen supply, cooling, and power control, into a single compact module.
As electric vehicles move into the mainstream, tyremakers are slowly focussing R&D on developing tyres which are more specifically engineered to meet the specific handling and range requirements. This will be especially so with the new generation of electrically-powered sportscars like the Porsche Taycan. Issues like weight and rolling resistance will have a great priority.
Specifically for electric sportscars
Michelin’s Pilot Sport EV is the first tyre from the French company which is designed to address the specific demands made by electric sportscars. It is the result of the unique experience acquired by Michelin’s involvement in the all-electric single-seater Formula E racing series.
Michelin, as the tyre supplier for the all-electric single-seater Formula E championship, has developed tyres specifically for the racing cars.
Technological experience from Formula E
A founding partner of Formula E, Michelin proposed a specific solution for the championship’s racing cars that is similar in its concept to a road tyre. The Michelin Formula E tyre is capable of racing in any weather conditions, while its size – 18 inches – is consistent with current road-car norms.
One example of how the Pilot Sport EV benefits directly from the progress Michelin has achieved over 6 seasons in Formula E is the ElectricGrip Compound technology. This features a hard compound for the centre of the tread to provide the grip required to handle high torque characteristics of electric sports cars. The sidewalls carry over the same pattern and velvet-finish markings of Michelin’s Formula E tyre.
Additionally, MaxTouch Construction maximizes the tyre’s contact with the road and evenly distribute the forces of acceleration, braking and cornering – delivering longer tread life without sacrificing performance.
Quieter and further
Electric cars run quietly so the tyres will also have to be as quiet as possible. To achieve this, Michelin engineers have cut out 20% of road noise using the company’s Acoustic technology which takes the form of a custom-developed polyurethane foam that reduces cabin noise.
There is the promise of optimal grip on dry and wet road – irrespective of the tyre’s level of wear – taking into account the higher weight and weight-distribution characteristics associated with electric sportscars. Resistance to wear is also tailored in response to the high torque and acceleration forces generated by electric powertrains.
The tyre’s low rolling resistance is claimed to extend operating range by up to 60 kms. This has been calculated in a Rolling Resistance internal study comparing a 255/45 R19 Pilot Sport EV (6.7 kg/t) with the same-sized Pilot Sport 4 SUV (8.8 kg/t). In the case of an electric vehicle weighing 2,151 kgs with a range of 540 km, the difference (2.1 kg/t) equates to more than 60 kms of additional range, or more than 10% of the original range.
Carbon-neutral throughout
The new tyre is also an eco-responsible product and will be CO2-neutral at the point of sale. Michelin has cut CO2 emissions from its industrial sites by 25% since 2010 and aims at their carbon neutrality by 2050.
In order to achieve carbon neutrality throughout the life of its tyre and address the demands of electric sportscar owners, Michelin has pledged to neutralize the CO2 emissions associated with the tyre’s production and transport to its point of sale. This process includes the financing of projects aimed at offsetting and absorbing the residual CO2 emissions associated with tyre production through the Livelihoods carbon fund until the day comes when it will be possible to eliminate them entirely.
The Pilot Sport EV will go on sale from April 2021, starting with the China market, followed by Europe and North America from the third quarter of this year. By 2024, Michelin plans to increase its sales in the high-growth markets by a factor of eight.
After over 100 years, the automobile industry is undergoing a major change that will see a progressive diminishing of vehicles with only internal combustion engines, leading to hybrids and eventually only electric powertrains. The global players have already begun the process of making the transition, and Bentley Motors is one of those that has revealed plans which are outlined in its Beyond100 strategy.
Aiming to offer truly sustainable luxury, the carmaker will reinvent every aspect of its business to become an end-to-end carbon neutral organisation as it embarks on its second century. The target is driven by a transformation programme across Bentley’s entire operations and products. This includes switching its model range to offer exclusively plug-in hybrid (PHEVs) or battery electric vehicles (BEVs) by 2026, and full electric vehicles (EVs) only by 2030.
Bentley’s traditional powertrains with internal combustion engines will be phased out and replaced with hybrid and then all-electric powertrains by the end of this decade.
No more ICE by 2030
The announcement today highlights Bentley’s plans for another 100 years, evolving from the world’s largest producer of 12-cylinder petrol engines to having no internal combustion engines within a decade.
Bentley’s electrified future was actually previewed with the reveal of the all-electric EXP 100 GT concept car (pictured below) in its centenary year. That concept featured a multitude of sustainable materials. These included 5,000-year-old copper-infused Riverwood, traditionally produced wool carpets and a leather-like textile upholstery made from a by-product of wine-making. Bentley will continue to use only sustainably sourced materials throughout its current, and next generation of cars.
Carbon-neutral production
The Beyond100 strategic plan will see, among other things, the change to a carbon-neutral luxury car factory. Last year, Bentley’s production facility in England became the first luxury automotive factory in the UK to be certified carbon neutral by the Carbon Trust. This followed two decades of implementing innovative solutions, including a water recycling system in the paint shop, local tree planting, installation of a 10,000 solar panel carport, taking the total number of on-site solar panels to 30,000, and a switch to renewable-only electricity sources.
The factory will continue to improve its environmental operations. By the end of 2025, the company intends to reduce its factory environmental impact by focusing on energy consumption, carbon dioxide emissions, wastewater, use of solvents in the paint process and becoming plastic neutral. This will result in a climate positive factory by 2030, actively reducing levels of carbon in the atmosphere, while in parallel the business invests in renewable energy and forestation projects.
Sustainable luxury mobility
Bentley will also redefine its business model which is built around its accelerated journey towards electrification. Having already committed that every model line will be offered with the option of a hybrid variant by 2023, with Bentley’s first pure electric model to be launched in 2025, Bentley is making a clear move towards zero emission mobility.
Achieving sustainable luxury mobility relies heavily on a sustainable business model, and Bentley’s aim is to become the world’s benchmark luxury car business, financially resilient and recession-proof. The challenging economic situation caused by the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in Bentley undertaking its biggest change programme in a century.
This change programme was driving for consistent financial resilience through rapid productivity improvements across the business, and a fundamental restructure. The results from the comprehensive cost and investment structure has placed the business in a position to achieve a positive financial performance for the full year 2020, in spite of the extenuating external circumstances.
Bespoke continues with sustainability
As well as accelerating the product journey towards electrification, Beyond100 opens a new era for Bentley’s bespoke division, Mulliner, which now has a three-portfolio structure comprising Mulliner Classic, Mulliner Collections and Mulliner Coachbuilt. The recently revealed Bacalar signifies the start of this new age as the first member of the Mulliner Coachbuilt family and incorporates elements of the sustainable materials showcased in EXP 100 GT.
The company is committed to handcrafting cars in Crewe for the next 100 years, whilst also preparing for a digital future, and has confirmed it will be investing in two new Research and Development buildings, a vehicle test centre and a dedicated launch quality centre.
“Since 1919, Bentley has defined luxury grand touring. Being at the forefront of progress is part of our DNA – the original Bentley boys were pioneers and leaders. Now, as we look Beyond100, we will continue to lead by reinventing the company and becoming the world’s benchmark luxury car business,” said Adrian Hallmark, Chairman & CEO of Bentley Motors.
